22/10/07 - Architectural History - Pre-Columnbian Architecture in the Americas 1500 BC - 1500 AD

The ancient Mesoamerican civilisations were Olmec, Toltec, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec. The ancient South American civilisation was Inca. These can be split into broad categories of 'Formative', 'Classic' and 'Postclassic.' These civilisations built monuments similar to the Egyptian pyramids and complex houses. They could not have been influenced at all by events that were going on so far across the sea, and so the very fact of the existence of the monuments serves the implication that all humans have an innate instinct to build monuments. The precinct, cairn, path and hut, in fact, are all fundamental and recurring typologies in monumental architecture.

The calendar of the Aztecs and other Mesoamerican civilisations was incredibly accurate and gave rise to their complex calligraphy. They had a lot of realistic art depicting deities and animals. For example, eagles were considered magical. The Aztecs believed in the underworld, and this is where some of their fantastic animals were thought to have lived.

At the Olmec site of La Venta we see a clear axial arrangement pointing south, with a large manmade mound. This arrangement shows a very human desire to arrange architectural forces with a certain order. One of the first pyramid-type structures is found in ancient America, which could be the remains of a more structured pyramid or simply an earth mound used to emulate the shape of a volcano, one of the most powerful forces in nature. Another mound was found to contain the body of an ancient ruler. Sculptural heads were used to 'guard' certain sites of particular importance, suggesting that they served a religious function. They could also be linked to royal power. Other ancient sculptures show creatures emerging from underground, offering a baby up to the gods, which again is of religious importance. The ancient Mesoamerican civilisations had an interest in topography as well as cosmology.

Teotihuacan, an ancient civilisation site, once had a population of 50,000. It had an impact on the ancient world similar to Constantinople in the east and was almost concurrent with the height of Constantinople. At this site there is a clear north-south and east west axis on a grander and more diplomatic scale than La Venta. It is home to the Pyramid of the Moon, a stepped pyramid, and its twin the Pyramid of the Sun, both of which are built along separate lines of symmetry. The latter was built in layers faced with uncut stone which is now in disrepair. It is the tallest monument on North American soil, at least, it was until the twentieth century. It faces seventeen degrees west, and is designed to reflect the rhythm of the universe. There is a subtle arrangement of space within the colony, with views running south. The Temple of Quetzalcoatl has ambiguous space surrounding it, possibly for public ritual, although this is just speculation. The building has a very distinct form; it is very articulate and deliberate. It was built using the method of 'talus and tablero' and was probably brightly painted when it was completed. It is ornamented with sculptures of deities. The plan of one other building, the Zacula compound, is very similar to a typical Roman villa, with clever circulation of air and lighting. It was a domestic building offering privacy and security.

In 700 AD the Olmecs disappeared. They chopped down more and more forests to use the wood for building and rituals of burning. When there were no forests left, the climate changed and a great drought descended and wiped out the Olmec civilisation.

At Monte Alban there is no axial structure. Instead the architecture is meant to mirror the landscape. Again, talus and tablero was the technique used for building.

The Maya civilisation, c. 300-1500 AD is probably the best known. The Maya believed in magical and supernatural forces. They had many cities in America. They used the same type of monuments, mass and axial arrangement as previous Mesoamerican civilisations. Yet their city designs are more complex because they had to deal with a more hilly terrain and dramatic landscape. They developed some principal architectural features; the stela, corbel vaulting and roof combs. The stelae were stone sculptures with carved inscriptions. There are still some stelae in Copan, Honduras. Once situated in the Great Plaza at Copan, the stelae were used as markers in ceremonies commemorating politic-religious events that were thought of as essential for the continuation of Creation. The Maya also built many pointed archways, which were basic in style. Corbelled vaults and flying facades five the impression of spaciousness and grandeur. Differentiation was achieved using height, and a hierarchy established where the higher the building, the more important it was. Buildings were edited over time. Mostly extra rooms were added which made the buildings more complex. The Great Nunnery at Uxmal, dating from the tenth century AD is one such example. It is broken up into several layers and has complex decoration, comparable in technical ability to ancient Greece or Rome. The Maya worked out how to build higher and more elaborate buildings such as multi-layered temples with roof combs, which were used as tombs for kings. One of these is the Temple of Inscriptions in Palenque, Mexico. Its nine steps reflect the nine levels of the Mayan underworld. Ball courts have been found there. Although the nature of the game is unknown, we do know that they were used both for friendly matches and gladiatorial ones where players fought to save their lives.

The Toltec city of Chichen Itza holds the Caracol, an ancient observatory used for time keeping. It has holes in the ceiling in order to track the planets. The Castillo is a building with a line of light that runs down its side on the autumn equinox and at no other time of year. The line reflects the shape of a snake, which had religious significance for the Toltecs. A wall painting of a ball court shows how the loser of the game was beheaded.

Mexican society was relatively slow to develop. Tenochtitlan is an ancient site that has been built over by modern Mexicans. The Aztec pyramids were meant to mirror the twin volcanoes in the background. When the Aztecs first emerged, they kept the royal bloodline by marrying the princess to an overlord, and when he was invited to Mexico, the overlord caused a war. The Aztecs were conquered by the Spanish in the late sixteenth century.

The Inca lived in the Andes of modern-day Peru. At their height they had an empire stretching over the Andes and beyond. There are narrow corridors between the mountains, which they used with great perseverance. They showed perseverance in everything they did, for they tamed wild llamas and alpacas, grew their own vegetables and created trade routes between mountains. Their mountain colonies look dramatic and spectacular. They would have housed only one thousand people, so perhaps they had a ritual purpose or perhaps it was a military post, for this area of the mountains is only accessible during a few months a year, and for the ret of the year the region is inhospitable for people to live there permanently. But the Inca thrived in a relatively inhospitable environment. They mastered the art of Cyclopean masonry, or rather, the use of stone without water.

Bibliography
Heyden, D. and Gendrop. P., Pre-Columbian Archiecture of Mesoamerica (New York, 1973).
Kubler, G., The Art and Architecture of Ancient America (Harmondsworth, 1962).
Miller, E. M., The Art of Mesoamerica from Olmec to Aztec (London, 1993).