27/9/07 - Architectural History - Early Christian to Romanesque 300-1100 AD

The periods of early Christian architecture are not distinctly isolated. The Early Christian period, for the purposes of this lecture, is divided into two: the Early Christian, which runs from 313-550 AD, and the Byzantine from 500-1000 AD. Following the Early Christian period roughly is the Romanesque period of architecture, separated into the Carolingian and Ottonian period, from 800-950 AD and the Romanesque which runs from 900-1100 AD.

The Emperor Constantine (272-337 AD) legalized the Christian religion in 313 AD. Earlier emperors had persecuted the followers of the Christian religion. But the change in the law meant that places of worship for Christians could now be built.

The Roman Basilica was the first place of worship for Christians. Its form is longitudinal, its main aisles separated by a row of columns, forming arcades on each side, such as those in the Basilica at Trier, Aula Nova. The aisles were used for Christian rites, prayer and worship and as a gathering place. The basilica construction was easy and economic to build because it was a well-known and much-used form, based on Roman precedents. One such basilica is the one at Leptis Magna in Libya (c. 220 AD).

The most basic basilica form was that of S. Apollinare in Classe. Here, focus was on the interior rather than the exterior. While the interior was decorative, the exterior was mostly unadorned. Examples of Early Christian basilicas include Santa Sabine in Rome (422-32 AD) and San Paolo fuori le mura (c. 382-400 AD). Of the latter, only an engraving survives.

Old St Peter's Basilica in Rome had a few variations from basic type such as an external courtyard (taken from Roman precedent), a narthex, double aisles and a transept which comes before the apse. The use of the apse is not known, but is thought to be linked to the shrine of St Peter. The formation of the basilica was developed later in the periods of Romanesque and Gothic architecture as a symbol of the cross, and the cross design became the standard one for Christian architecture.

However, the basilica form was not the only one. Circular or octagonal buildings were used from Roman precedent and had their own symbolism. The circle symbolises the eternal and infinite God and the perfection of God and Heaven. The octagonal shape refers to the resurrection of Christ. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (c. 380 AD) has a round form, like the Pantheon in Rome. In fact, the Pantheon itself began to be used as a Christian church in the seventh century.

Santa Costanza in Rome (c. 350 AD) was built over the tomb of Constantine's daughter. Ambient light flows down through a Pantheon-like hole in the ceiling, giving a Heaven-like ambience and symbolism. Apses are set into the outer wall, and it has wide arches. It also has a symbolic reference to the Holy Trinity. It does this by a hierarchical arrangement of space: from the centre of the ceiling to the outer walls of the church is an isosceles triangle, pointing towards Heaven. It has come to be known as Byzantine architecture, named after Constantinople (otherwise known as Byzantium). Constantinople was an important city because it gained precedence over Rome after its collapse.

San Vitale in Ravenna (526-47 AD) was built concurrently with basilicas, but takes its influence from elsewhere. Its central space is equivalent to the nave. The interior is lavish with coloured marble and mosaic murals. It is a Byzantine creation, influence coming easily to Ravenna at the political centre between the eastern and western empire of Constantinople.

Hagia Sophia (Church of Holy Wisdom) was built in Constantinople, now Istanbul, between 532-37 AD, and is similar to San Vitale in several respects. It is a technical feat, being very tall and involving revolutionary rectolinear into circular formation of towers. Its axis is basilica-shaped, but the central space has become the focal point, giving the symbolic Greek cross shape. The building is a kind of unification of east and west. It is now a mosque, but was once covered in Byzantine mosaics which have since been recovered. The formation of the circular dome covering a square space involves a four-arch base which has a cylindrical peak, and supports a cylindrical tower made up of a pendentive, a drum, and a dome, and the dome then supports a smaller cylinder called a lantern, with a small domed top, or cupola. The building also makes use of aisles, galleries and buttresses, all of which would become significant architectural features in the future.

S. Marco is also an interesting blend of east and west which has kept its original lavish gold mosaics. This interior gives us some idea of how the San Vitale interior may have looked originally. The light in S. Marco reflects off the gold mosaics with grand effect. There is again a sense of spatial hierarchy, with the centre being also the centre of the Greek cross plan.

In Europe (mainly France and Germany), there was a revival in the basilica type during the new Carolingian dynasty in which Charlemagne expanded his empire. He was a whoremonger, but also a socially and culturally rounded individual. He accepted the old Roman ideology of power which gave him ultimate empowerment. He adopted and developed Christian architecture with the inclusion of transepts and apses. Fulda, the monastic church built c. 790-819, was based on St Peter's in Rome. It demonstrates that architecture could be used to associate with imperial power. Fulda was a symbol of Charlemagne's connection with the Roman empire and it gave him credibility as the new emperor.

During the Carolingian period, the turrets of early Christian architecture were replaced with towers. This highlighted their new liturgical functions, which were as spatial indicators of the altar and tombs. For example, St Riquier in France (c. 790-9) has crossing towers and prominent transepts and the addition of a forecourt imitating Roman precedent. The monastery of St Gall in Switzerland (c. 830), Corvey, westwork of abbey church (c. 873-85) and St Michael in Hildesheim, Germany (1001-33) are other prime examples of the use of towers. Notice also how St Michael is built based on a grid system of proportioning space.

There formed a new western tradition of Christian architecture. This focused on a trend of upward movement, symbolically reaching into the heavens, and this idea is still prevalent today.

In St Michael we see how the exterior corresponds to interior space, with the help of the square units of the grid plan. The Abbey of Maria Laach in Germany (1093-1156), St Pantaleon in Cologne (c. 980), and Speyer Cathedral in Germany all reflect this growing trend.

Monks began to hold a more significant place in the Christian religion, so churches were built to house them. Fontenay in France, completed 1147, and Senanque in France, built in the late twelfth century, are some examples. The Third Abbey at Cluny in France (completed 1147) is also one of them. The building is entirely different from the basilica churches: it is larger, more elaborate and complex because it was the centre of pilgrimage and was used for ceremonial rites of worshippers and monks. People spent more time than ever in church. It is designed on the prominent cruciform plan, with two transepts and many chapels.

Other churches were built specifically to accommodate vast numbers of pilgrims. These include St Sernin in Toulouse (1080-1120) and the church of Santiago de Compostela (1075-1122). Notice the clear Latin cruciform, and the large and complex plan of the buildings.

Romanesque architecture differs from Christian and Byzantine architecture because it needs an arch and column structure to support great weight and small windows to maintain the stability of the building. Large piers and barrel vaults were constructed. Romanesque churches were heavy and uneconomical so they need thick walls. The simple groin vault developed out of Romanesque architecture and became one of its most distinguishing features. These features are demonstrated by San Vincente in Cordona, Spain (1040).

The interior and exterior of architecture became much more elaborate, with decorative columns, arches and ceilings. We can see this in St Etienne in Caen, Normandy (c.1060-77) and Ely Cathedral in England (begun c.1090). These continued the longitudinal aisle plan. The vaulting and round arches give a sense of rhythm and continuance along the aisle. Architecture had come a long way from the heavier, more unified, austere church (such as St Cyriakus in Gernrode, 961) to the slightly lighter, more broken up, decorative style (exemplified by Norwich Cathedral, England, begun in 1096).

The symbolism of Christian architecture is very important because church architecture was imbued with religious meaning: the shape of the Greek or Latin cross symbolised Christ's death, the number 3 referred to the Holy Trinity, 8 to Christ's resurrection, 12 to the number of disciples and 40 the number of days and nights of the Great Flood. For example, Fulda is based on the Latin cross, Santa Costanza has twelve pairs of columns, the gatehouse of the Lorsch monastery (c. 790) has three openings and is based on the triumphal arch, celebrating the triumph of life over death, the west front of Saint Gilles-de-Gard (late twelfth century) has three doors and San Vitale's octagonal shape represents the baptism which is associated with the number eight.

Geometric proportions were widely used in Christian architecture. Geometric units could be used to organise the dimensions of a church; the ratio between the side of a square and its diagonal could be used to lay out a cloister and adjacent buildings; and proportions based on the square root of 2 were used in Norwich Cathedral.

So church architecture was alive with cultural intent. Everything had a purpose; nothing was coincidental.

Bibliography
Barrel i Altet, X., The Romanesque: Towns, Cathedrals and Monasteries (Cologne, 2001)
Conant, K. J., Carolingian and Romanesque Architecture 800-1200 (New Haven, 1978)
Krautheimer, R., Early Christian and Byzantine Architecture (New Haven, 1986)
Stalley, R., Early Medieval Architecture (Oxford, 1999)