5/2/07 - Classical Literature - Euripides: Helen (1)

The Helen was performed in 415 BC, and it was part of a trilogy by Euripides called Trojan Women. The trilogy involved a vivid depiction of the destruction of war, which appear to be a reflection of the Milos disaster which happened the previous year; Athens sacked the city for not supplying them during the Peloponnesian War.

413 Sicilian Expedition; Athenian army overwhelmed and slaughtered
412 Helen performed at City Dionysia
411 Aristophanes' Thesmophoriazusae performed.

The Helen was revolutionary and new. Its genre does not conform to any traditional genre, e.g. its happy ending. Its humour suggests comedy rather than tragedy. Its opening in Egypt with Helen at the tomb is unconventional.

The eidolon (phantom) causes a split in all the characters concerned. The chorus goes offstage for the first time in Greek drama history. And the chorus are involved in the story: they advise Helen to go into the temple to seek Theonöe. Menelaos speaks alone onstage, like a second prologue. He talks about his ancestors and his struggles and shame. He has come to the palace to seek good things. He is proud of his fame. There is a contrast between central characters and others, like between heroes and warriors. The minor characters bring up the bigger picture and supply a different viewpoint to the central characters (i.e. Menelaos, Helen and Theoklymenos). Menelaos is concerned about the difference between appearance and reality, e.g. he wears the clothes of a beggar yet he is a famous warrior. Helen, too, is involved in the theme: her name is guilty of the death of thousands of warriors in the Trojan War, but the real person is innocent.

Menelaos is portrayed as stupid: are there two Zeuses? He is still confident that someone will give him provisions, although he appears to be a beggar.

Helen finds out that Menelaos is nearby but runs away when he appears. Once it is confirmed that they are Menelaos and Helen, Helen embraces him but he pushes her away in disbelief. Again, there is the difference between appearance and reality. Words/name and deeds are mismatched.

The perceived reality of Trojan Helen doesn't matter to the man who died fighting, surely? What guidelines are there for what is true or not? Menelaos says he will use his eyes, yet he deceives Theoklymenos' eyes with a disguise and Menelaos says that he does not like being judged by his appearance.

The traditional suppliant tragedy shows someone at a tomb in fear of their life. Helen is at the tomb, yet she is merely afraid of marriage. Euripides mocks suppliant tragedy.

There is a theme of doubling: there are two Helens. The play has two halves, two shipwrecked sailors, two choral entrances, two brothers of Helen. So which is the real and which the fake thing?

The character of Helen is interesting. In the first half she talks about her sad fate, and uses the sad poetry of tragedy. But at other times she complains too much.

Helen and Menelaos are concerned about what is the most noble way to die when they discuss their suicide. Again, the preoccupation of appearances.

Does the plot ring any bells? The recognition sequence and relationship of Helen and Menelaos smacks of Penelope and Odysseus' in the Odyssey.

Prologos (1-166): Helen stands in front of the palace in Egypt, gives the background to her current situation (her birth/judgement of Paris/phantom) and bemoans her present situation as suppliant at the tomb of Proteus in order to avoid marrying his son, the new king, Theoklymenos.
Key themes are introduced: beauty; competition/conflict; deception; rape/abduction; kleos (fame) and reputation; human and divine interaction and responsibility. All themes participate in the pervasive opposition between appearance and reality, are reflected in the play's 'doubleness' and are explored on various levels: ontological - what is reality?; epistemological - how do we know what reality/truth is?; ethical - what determines right and wrong and human/divine responsibility?; theological - what is the nature of divinity?; political - what is the basis for war?; aesthetic - drama as mimesis.
Teucer, Aias' brother, in exile, arrives looking for the priestess Theonöe for help in returning home. He initially believes Helen is Helen, then realises she cannot be. He tells her of Troy, the suicide of Aias, disappearance and probable death of Menelaos and the deaths of Leda and Disocuri. Exit Teucer.

Parodos (167-251): The chorus of Spartan women enter after hearing Helen cry at Teucer's news. The chorus and Helen alternate in lamenting.

First epeisodion (252-329): Helen again bemoans her life and contemplates suicide. The chorus persuade her to consult Theonöe to find out whether Menelaos is alive or dead before she makes a decision.

(330-385): Helen vows again to commit suicide if Menelaos is dead. The chorus voice optimism. Helen sings of Callisto and Cos whose beauty also brought problems but were saved by metamorphosis. Exit Helen and chorus into the palace.

Second epeisodion (386-514): Menelaos in rags bemoans his lot since Troy, his failed attempt to get home and his recent shipwreck. His has left phantom Helen in a cave and come to the palace for help.
The doorkeeper rebuffs Menelaos because Theoklymenos hates all Greeks since he wants Helen. Menelaos tries to fathom how Helen can be in two places, then resolves to wait for Theoklymenos.

(515-527): Chorus announce that Theonöe has proclaimed Menelaos alive but is shipwrecked somewhere.

Third epeisodion (528-864): Helen returns rejoicing that Theonöe said Menelaos was alive. Menelaos and Helen see each other, comment on the similarity of appearance to their spouses, and Helen tells the phantom story.
A messenger reports the disappearance of the phantom Helen from the cave.
Recognition dawns. Helen and Menelaos sing a duet celebrating their reunion. Menelaos asks repeated questions about the past, despite Helen's desire not to talk about it.
The messenger remains puzzled and Menelaos has to explain the whole story again. They decide to try to escape and promise a double suicide if they fail.

Fourth epeisodion (865-1029): An agon. Helen and Menelaos in turn plead for Theonöe's silence. Theonöe agrees. Exit Theonöe.

Fifth epeisodion (1030-1106): Helen and Menelaos plot to escape. Helen's idea: Menelaos to pose as messenger reporting Menelaos' death at sea. Helen to persuade Theoklymenos that Greek custom requires she hold a funeral at sea and so needs a ship. Helen prays to Hera and Aphrodite as directed by Theonöe.

First stasimon (1107-1164): The chorus lament the past, war, and the difficulty of determining truth.

Sixth epeisodion (1165-1300): Helen tells Theoklymenos the fabricated story and promises to marry him. Theoklymenos agrees to every one of Menelaos' specifications, including a ship.

Second stasimon (1301-1368): The chorus sing about the story of Demeter and Persephone. Demeter/Cybele searching with virgin Artemis and Athene, top of Ida, and death and barrenness everywhere. Zeus sent Graces to charm her heart and Muses. Aphrodite came first and danced and cheered her.

Seventh epeisodion (1369-1450): Plot is put into action. Theoklymenos wants Menelaos to do the ritual alone, but Helen insists it is her duty. Theoklymenos offers to go too, but Helen objects he would have to obey his own servants. Exit Theoklymenos. Menelaos prays to Zeus. Exit Helen and Menelaos.

Third stasimon (1451-1511): The chorus pray for the ship's speedy return to Greece, imagine what Helen will see on return - Leucippidae, Hermione and ritual dances. Pray for cranes to fly to Sparta and report the good news, and for the help of the Dioscuri on the journey and then to cleanse Helen's infamy.

Exodus (1512-1692): Messenger reports the escape of Helen and Menelaos. Theoklymenos in anger wants to kill Theonöe for her betrayal. The messenger fails to dissuade him.
Deus ex machina: the Dioscuri appear and persuade Theoklymenos that right has been done in accordance with the will of heaven and his father's command. They predict fair return for Helen and immortalisation later, island where Hermes first hid her to be named after her, Menelaos to live after death in Isle of the Blest.